HUNTING

Ithaca Model

High dynamic range imaging

Example

Photographs

4 stops

2 stops

+2 stops

+4 stops

Merged to HDR then reduced to LDR

Simple contrast reduction

Local tone mapping

Photography

Main article: Dynamic range#Photography

In photography, dynamic range is measured in EV differences (known as stops) between the brightest and darkest parts of the image that show detail. An increase of one EV or one stop is a doubling of the amount of light.

Dynamic Ranges of Common Devices

Dynamic Ranges of Common Devices

Device

Stops

Contrast

Computer LCD Display

9.5

700:1

DSLR camera (1Dmk2)

11

2048:1

Print film

7

128:1

High-dynamic-range photographs are generally achieved by capturing multiple standard photographs, often using exposure bracketing, and then merging them into an HDR image. Digital photographs are often encoded in a camera's raw image format, because 8 bit JPEG encoding clips the camera's possible dynamic range (and also introduces undesirable effects due to the lossy compression).

Any camera that allows manual over- or under-exposure of a photo can be used to create HDR images.

Some cameras have an auto exposure bracketing (AEB) feature with a far greater dynamic range than others, from the 3 EV of the Canon EOS 40D, to the 18 EV of the Canon EOS-1D Mark II.

The Pentax K-7 DSLR has an HDR mode which captures an HDR image and then outputs (only) a tone-mapped JPEG file.

Dynamic range for each ISO setting of the 1Dmk2

ISO

Dynamic Range (Stops)

50

11.3

100

11.6

200

11.5

400

11.2

800

10.7

1600

9.7

3200

8.7

Mathematics

Contrast ratio = 2(EV difference)

EV difference = log2(Contrast ratio)

The fact that an increase of 1 EV indicates a doubling of light means that EV is often represented on a base-2 logarithmic scale.

The human perception of brightness is well approximated by a Steven's power law, which over a reasonable range is close to logarithmic, as described by the Weberechner law, which is one reason that logarithmic measures of light intensity are often used.

Representing HDR images on LDR displays

Contrast reduction

HDR images can easily be represented on common LDR devices, such as computer monitors and photographic prints, by simply reducing the contrast, just as all image editing software is capable of doing.

Clipping and compressing dynamic range

Scenes with high dynamic ranges are often represented on LDR devices by cropping the dynamic range, cutting off the darkest and brightest details, or alternatively with an S conversion curve that compresses contrast progressively and more aggressively in the highlights and shadows while leaving the middle portions of the contrast range relatively unaffected.

An example of a rendering of an HDRI tone-mapped image in a New York City nighttime cityscape.

Tone mapping

Main article: Tone mapping

Tone mapping reduces the dynamic range, or contrast ratio, of the entire image, while retaining localized contrast (between neighboring pixels), tapping into research on how the human eye and visual cortex perceive a scene, trying to represent the whole dynamic range while retaining realistic color and contrast.

Images with too much tone mapping processing have their range over-compressed, creating a surreal low-dynamic-range rendering of a high-dynamic-range scene.

Comparison with traditional digital images

Information stored in high dynamic range images typically corresponds to the physical values of luminance or radiance that can be observed in the real world. This is different from traditional digital images, which represent colors that should appear on a monitor or a paper print. Therefore, HDR image formats are often called "scene-referred", in contrast to traditional digital images, which are "device-referred" or "output-referred". Furthermore, traditional images are usually encoded for the human visual system (maximizing the visual information stored in the fixed number of bits), which is usually called "gamma encoding" or "gamma correction". The values stored for HDR images are often gamma compressed (power law) or logarithmically encoded, or floating-point linear values, since fixed-point linear encodings are increasingly inefficient over higher dynamic ranges.

HDR images often use a higher number of bits per color channel than traditional images to represent many more colors over a much wider dynamic range. 16-bit ("half precision") or 32-bit floating point numbers are often used to represent HDR pixels. However, when the appropriate transfer function is used, HDR pixels for some applications can be represented with as few as 1012 bits for luminance and 8 bits for chrominance without introducing any visible quantization artifacts.

History of HDR photography

1850

The idea of using several exposures to fix a too-extreme range of luminance was pioneered as early as the 1850s by Gustave Le Gray to render seascapes showing both the sky and the sea. Such rendering was impossible at the time using standard techniques, the luminosity range being too extreme. Le Gray used one negative for the sky, and another one with a longer exposure for the sea, and combined the two in a single picture in positive.

1930

High dynamic range imaging was originally developed in the 1930s and 1940s by Charles Wyckoff. Wyckoff's detailed pictures of nuclear explosions appeared on the cover of Life magazine in the mid 1940s. Wyckoff implemented local neighborhood tone remapping to combine differently exposed film layers into one single image of greater dynamic range.

1980

The desirability of HDR has been recognized for decades, but its wider usage was, until quite recently, precluded by the limitations imposed by the available computer processing power. Probably the first practical application of HDRI was by the movie industry in late 1980s and, in 1985, Gregory Ward created the Radiance RGBE image file format which was the first (and still the most commonly used) HDR imaging file format.

Wyckoff's concept of neighborhood tone mapping was applied to video cameras by a group from the Technion in Israel led by Prof. Y.Y.Zeevi who filed for a patent on this concept in 1988. In 1993 the first commercial medical camera was introduced that performed real time capturing of multiple images with different exposures, and producing an HDR video image.

Modern HDR imaging uses a completely different approach, based on making a high-dynamic range luminance or light map using only global image operations (across the entire image), and then tone mapping this result. Global HDR was first introduced in 1993 resulting in a mathematical theory of differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter that was published in 1995 by Steve Mann and Rosalind Picard. In 1997 this global-HDR technique of combining several differently exposed images to produce a single HDR image was presented to the computer graphics community by Paul Debevec.

This method was developed to produce a high dynamic range image from a set of photographs taken with a range of exposures. With the rising popularity of digital cameras and easy-to-use desktop software, the term HDR is now popularly used to refer to this process. This composite technique is different from (and may be of lesser or greater quality than) the production of an image from a single exposure of a sensor that has a native high dynamic range. Tone mapping is also used to display HDR images on devices with a low native dynamic range, such as a computer screen.

1996

Steve Mann developed and patented the global-HDR method for producing digital images having extended dynamic range at the MIT Media Laboratory. Mann's method involved a two-step procedure: (1) generate a single floating point image array by global-only image operations (operations that affect all pixels identically, without regard to their local neighborhoods); and then (2) convert this image array, using local neighborhood processing (tone-remapping, etc.), into an HDR image. The image array generated by the first step of Mann's process is called a "lightspace image", "lightspace picture", or "radiance map". Another benefit of global-HDR imaging is that it provides access to the intermediate light or radiance map, which has been used for computer vision, and other image processing operations.

1997

In 1997 this technique of combining several differently exposed images to produce a single HDR image was presented to the public by Paul Debevec.

2005

A tone-mapped rendering of an HDR photo taken in Ithaca, New York

Photoshop CS2 introduced the Merge to HDR function.

In many ways, Photoshop CS2's HDR function is the holy grail of dynamic range. With properly shot and processed files it allows photographers to easily create images that were previously impossible, or at least very difficult to accomplish. But, good as it is, like a gun or nuclear power, it can be a force for evil as well as good.

Not every image needs to have 10-15 stops of dynamic range. In fact, most photographs look quite nice, thank you very much, with the 5-7 stops of dynamic range that we're used to. I fully expect to see some really silly if not downright ugly images in the months ahead, as photographers get their copies of Photoshop CS2 and start discovering what the HDR function is capable of.

But, as with all such tool [sic], in the hands of sensitive artists and competent craftsmen, I'm sure that we will start to be shown the world in new and exciting ways.

Michael Reichmann , Luminous Landscape

Video

Until recently there were no "pure" examples of HDR based cinematography, since the effects were most commonly used during composited sequences in films. However with the advent of low cost consumer digital cameras, many amateurs began posting tone mapped HDR timelapse videos on the Internet. In 2008 Mobius/Quark Films released "Silicon Valley Timelapse" which is said to feature almost 1.1 million frames of tone mapped HDR, making it the largest single source of tone mapped HDR footage available to date.[citation needed]

See also

Methods

High dynamic range rendering

Wide dynamic range

File Formats

Comparison of graphics file formats

Radiance RGBE image format, .hdr

OpenEXR, .exr

Logluv TIFF, .tiff

Unified Color BEF, .bef

scRGB colorspace

Software

See HDR (Software)

Radiance - HDR rendering software (free)

Hypershot - HDR rendering software

CinePaint - open source HDR image editing software, forked from GIMP in 1998

Unified Color HDR PhotoStudio an advanced HDR imaging software

Highlight headroom

Photomatix Pro (MacOSX, Win32; USD 99; free trial with watermark)

SilverFast HDR / HDR Studio 48 bit per pixel image processing software

Hugin - open source HDR merging and panorama stitching software (Linux, MacOSX, Unix, Windows; GPL-2+ free of cost)

Dynamic Photo HDR (MacOSX, Win32; USD 55; trial available)

References

^ Reinhard, Erik; Ward, Greg; Pattanaik, Sumanta; Debevec, Paul (2006). High dynamic range imaging: acquisition, display, and image-based lighting. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Morgan Kaufmann. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-12-585263-0. "Images that store a depiction of the scene in a range of intensities commensurate with the scene are what we call HDR, or 'radiance maps.' On the other hand, we call images suitable for display with current display technology LDR." 

^ Cohen, Jonathan and Tchou, Chris and Hawkins, Tim and Debevec, Paul E. (2001). Steven Jacob Gortler and Karol Myszkowski. ed. "Real-Time High Dynammic Range Texture Mapping". Proceedings of the 12th Eurographics Workshop on Rendering Techniques (Springer): 313320. ISBN 3-211-83709-4. 

^ Vassilios Vonikakis and Ioannis Andreadis (2008). "Fast Automatic Compensation of Under/Over-Exposured Image Regions". in Domingo Mery and Luis Rueda. Advances in image and video technology: Second pacific rim symposium, PSIVT 2007, Santiago, Chile, December 17-19, 2007. p. 510. ISBN 9783540771289. http://books.google.com/books?id=vkNfw8SsU3oC&pg=PA510&dq=hdr+sdr+"standard+dynamic+range"&ei=gqe6Svq0IZfGM7KehMYP#v=onepage&q=hdr sdr "standard dynamic range"&f=false. 

^ a b R. N. Clark. "Film versus Digital Summary". http://www.clarkvision.com/imagedetail/film.vs.digital.summary1/index.html. Retrieved 2010-02-28. 

^ "Auto Exposure Bracketing by camera model". http://hdr-photography.com/aeb.html. Retrieved 18 August 2009. 

^ "The Pentax K-7: The era of in-camera High Dynamic Range Imaging has arrived!". http://www.adorama.com/alc/blogarticle/11608. Retrieved 18 August 2009. 

^ R. N. Clark. "Procedures for Evaluating Digital Camera Sensor Noise, Dynamic Range, and Full Well Capacities; Canon 1D Mark II Analysis". http://www.clarkvision.com/imagedetail/evaluation-1d2/index.html. Retrieved 2009-08-21. 

^ Stanley Smith Stevens and Geraldine Stevens (1986). Psychophysics: Introduction to its Perceptual, Neural, and Social Prospects. Transaction Publishers. pp. 208209. ISBN 9780887386435. http://books.google.com/books?id=r5JOHlXX8bgC&pg=PA208&dq=eye+logarithmic+power-law&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=TSyOSqTWHIuWlQS2sZG5Bw#v=onepage&q=eye logarithmic power-law&f=false. 

^ Vernon B. Mountcastle (2005). The Sensory Hand: Neural Mechanisms of Somatic Sensation. Harvard University Press. pp. 1617. ISBN 9780674019744. http://books.google.com/books?id=WOmqKSheygYC&pg=PA17&dq=logarithmic+weber-fechner&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=9DKOSrTaHJCqkASHxZShBw#v=onepage&q=logarithmic weber-fechner&f=false. 

^ Leslie Stroebel and Richard D. Zakia (1995). The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography (3rd ed.). Focal Press. p. 465. ISBN 9780240514178. http://books.google.com/books?id=CU7-2ZLGFpYC&pg=PA465&dq=logarithmically+light+nearly&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=UjSOSouBEKWQkAT12-GmBw#v=onepage&q=logarithmically light nearly&f=false. 

^ a b Greg Ward, Anyhere Software. "High Dynamic Range Image Encodings". http://www.anyhere.com/gward/hdrenc/hdr_encodings.html. 

^ "The RADIANCE Picture File Format". http://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/refer/Notes/picture_format.html. Retrieved 2009-08-21. 

^ Fernando, Randima (2004). "26.5 Linear Pixel Values". Gpu Gems. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0321228324. http://http.developer.nvidia.com/GPUGems/gpugems_ch26.html. 

^ Max Planck Institute for Computer Science. "Perception-motivated High Dynamic Range Video Encoding". http://www.mpi-sb.mpg.de/resources/hdrvideo/. 

^ J. Paul Getty Museum. Gustave Le Gray, Photographer. July 9 September 29, 2002. Retrieved September 14, 2008.

^ US patent application 5144442, Ginosar, R., Hilsenrath, O., Zeevi, Y., "Wide dynamic range camera", published 1992-09-01  

^ Technion - Israel Institute of Technology (1993). Adaptive Sensitivity. http://visl.technion.ac.il/research/isight/AS/. 

^ "Compositing Multiple Pictures of the Same Scene", by Steve Mann, in IS&T's 46th Annual Conference, Cambridge, Massachusetts, May 9-14, 1993

^ S. Mann and R. W. Picard. "On Being ndigital With Digital Cameras: Extending Dynamic Range By Combining Differently Exposed Pictures". http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/mann95being.html. 

^ a b US patent application 5828793, Steve Mann, "Method and apparatus for producing digital images having extended dynamic ranges", published 1998-10-27  

^ a b "Merge to HDR in Photoshop CS2". http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/hdr.shtml. Retrieved 2009-08-27. 

^ "CinePaint Frequently Asked Questions". http://www.cinepaint.org/faq.html. Retrieved 2009-08-31. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tone-mapped HDR images

HDR Images Creation 101

Luminance HDR/Qtpfsgui Open-source software to create HDR images

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Alternative photography

Cross processing  Redscale  Lomography  Solarisation  Pinhole  Polaroid art  Bleach bypass  Multiple exposure  Fisheye   HDR   Infrared

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Photography

Technical terms

Angle of view  Aperture  Circle of confusion  Color temperature  Depth of field  Depth of focus  Exposure  Exposure compensation  F-number  Film format  Film speed  Focal length  Hyperfocal distance  Metering mode  Perspective distortion  Photograph  Photographic printing  Photographic processes  Reciprocity  Red-eye effect  Science of photography  Shutter speed  Zone system

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Afocal photography  Bokeh  Contre-jour  Cross processing  Cyanotype  Film developing  Fill flash  Fireworks  Harris Shutter  Kite aerial  Macro  Multiple exposure  Night  Panoramic  Panning  Photogram (Kirlian)  Print toning  Rephotography  Rollout  Sabatier Effect  Stereoscopy  Stopping Down  Sun printing  Infrared  Ultraviolet  Time-lapse  Tilt-shift

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Geometry and symmetry  Framing  Headroom  Lead room  Rule of thirds  Simplicity

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Camera (Pinhole  Rangefinder  SLR  Still  TLR  Toy  View)  Darkroom (Enlarger  Safelight)  Film (Base  Format  Holder  Stock)  Filter  Flash  Manufacturers  Movie projector  Photographic lens  Slide projector  Tripod  Zone plate

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Autochrome Lumire  Calotype  Daguerreotype  Dufaycolor  Heliography  Timeline of photographic technology

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Other topics

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List of photographers  List of most expensive photographs  Portal  WikiProject

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Display technology

Video

Current generation

Electroluminescent display (ELD)  Vacuum fluorescent display (VFD)  Light emitting diode (LED) display  Cathode ray tube (CRT)  Liquid crystal display (LCD) (TFT  LED backlight)  Plasma display panel (PDP)  3LCD  Digital Light Processing (DLP)  Liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS)

Next generation

Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) (roll-up display  Active-matrix  Phosphorous)  Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED)  Field emission display (FED)  Laser TV  Ferro Liquid display (FLD)  Interferometric modulator display (IMOD)  Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent (TDEL)  Nanocrystal display  Quantum dot display (QDLED)  Time-multiplexed optical shutter (TMOS)  Telescopic pixel display (TPD)  Liquid crystal lasers (LCL)  Laser Phosphor Display (LPD)

Non-video

Electromechanical (Flip-dot  Split-flap  Vane)  Electronic paper  Rollable  Eggcrate  Nixie tube

3D display

Stereoscopic  Autostereoscopic  Computer generated holography  Volumetric  Laser beam

Static media

Hologram  Movie projector  Neon sign  Rollsign  Slide projector  Transparency

Related articles

Display examples  Free-space display  Large-screen television technology  Optimum HDTV viewing distance  High dynamic range imaging (HDRI)

Comparison of display technology

Categories: HDR file formats | Computer graphics | Photographic techniques | 3D computer graphicsHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2009
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Can anyone help me date my Ithaca Model 37 Featherweight 12 ga, now that the company has closed?

The gun is sweet and in great condition, and I'd like to learn its manufacture date and possibly get an original owner's manual for it. Mechanically its a little different than other pump shotguns - it ejects shells from the bottom. Nice engraving and very smooth action.

1937 - 1977

http://www.ivorybeads.com/site/default.asp?Page=54&FSL3_SL_5=Ithaca&FSL3_SL_6=37&FSL3_SL_10=12&FSL3_RUNSEARCH=TRUE&FSID=1599

Hope this helps.

Restoring An Ithaca Model 37 shotgun